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Behru cesik
Setting Behru Cesik (a combination of Behru, an ethnonym, cet, to speak, and the suffix -hik, indicating a manner of doing something) is a language spoken in the southern half of the lower Sedonese basin, the Hedri plains, and in the northern portions of Kakinsake. Its speakers form a distinct ethnicity in the south of Sedone, independent from the dominant Idili. The Behru people originated from the distant and now extinct Behru empire, which attempted to settle the Hedri area 1500 years prior. The empire has collapsed since then, and the Behru people are now isolated, their nations being increasingly encroached upon by the native peoples they had once tried to conquer. Phonology Consonants Vowels Phonotactics All Behru free morphemes of native origin consist of a 1 syllable root with a maximum structure stop-fricative-approximant-vowel/syllabic l or r-consonant-vowel. Bound morphemes are permitted to have a reduced structure, so long as they start witha consonant should they be allowed to occur word initially. All syllables must start with a An exception, of All free roots except particles have a suffix or infix of some sort indicating its grammatical role in the sentence. Vowels All roots that can exist unbound, along with several bound roots, hold a tone. This tone may be either a rising or falling ´ or `. Along with this, the vowel carrying a tone also carries a strength, an aspect of the root which carries grammatical information, and this strength can be on 1 of 3 levels. Polysyllabic compound Words carry the vowel strength on the second to last syllable. The vowel i can be found as a non prolonged sound in some bound morphemes, but never occurs as the vowel of an unbound morpheme. Sandhi Sandhi in behru can be divided into two categories, tone sandhi and consonant sandhi. Vowel sandhi only occurs word internally, as all morphemes that can occur at the front of a word start with consonants. Consonant sandhi (happens both inside words and between to consecutive words) Vowel Sandhi (only happens inside the word) Orthography Behru romanized orthography matches the symbols given in the phonology section. Sandhi is indicated always in both written systems. The Behru native writing system is an alphabet, with symbols for vowels, consonants, vowel strength and tone arranged into syllabic blocks, written up to down, left to right. Pictures of these will be uploaded later. Basic Grammar Behru in the modern day is highly fusional, although the language of old, in the days of empire, was far more agglutinative. This older stage of the language is popular in literature, but this article primarily focuses on the Hedri colloquial. All root morphemes of the language can be split into 4 groups. All free morphemes are part of onne of 3 parts of speech, verb, noun, or particle. Adjectives and adverbs do not exist as a part of speech, they can exist as either prefixes or derived from verbs. The language is most commonly uses a subject object verb word order, but there are no strict rules on word order in most sentences. The language is exclusively head final, with all modifiers placed before the head. The verb always comes a finally when it is the head of a clause, and is the only portion of the sentence that may not be omitted under any circumstances. Morphemes Noun Morphology Behru Nouns may be modified to show the nouns role in the sentaence. This modification is shown through vowel strength, final consonant mutation, and suffixes. A nouns number is also shown in this way, and there is no distinction between number and role markers. The standard Hedri dialect has 9 sentence roles and 3 numbers attached to the noun fusionally. The three numbers of Behru are one, few, and many. The few number is used for small groups of things, pairs, and a cluster of things. The many number implies that there are too many of a noun to be easily counted. There is also a mass noun suffix, -mik, with its own endings, but grammatically it is treated effectively identically to the one number. Nouns, excluding irregular ones, can be divided into the following declension groups: k, t, n, ik, ot, l, a, i, e, r. The declensions may also be divided into animate, inanimate, and abstract/mass, each of which use slightly different endings. The singular cases use the strong core vowel for most cases, the weak vowel for the reciever and owner, and a prolonged core vowel for the few and many forms. Consonant declension Vowel declension (note) using vowel sandhi, the endings for all declensions can be predicted based on the a declension endings.) Showing that a noun is posessed. If a noun is owned by/part of another noun, Its stem is modified by a suffix. Notice how in the declination charts there are two possible endings for a noun in the owner case. Although in modern days these suffixes simply agree with the animacy of the noun, in the past they indicated whether the owned object was removable or not. Nonremovable posessions were indicated by the inanimate owner suffix -ngo, and indiacted unremovable things like your arm, your mother, or your feelings. The animate suffix indicated things that you bought/took and could be easily given away, like your dog or your house. Verb Morphology Behru verbs are conjugated by factors, person, number, transitivity, tense aspect, and mood. Many Behru sentences consist of only a verb, as both the subject and object may be dropped if they can be determined by context. Step 1: Mood and transitivity In Behru, mood and transitivity are fused categories. Moods are associated with either a weak or strong stem of the verb. The weak stem indicates uncertartainity. Formation of the strong basic stem Formation of the strong derived intransitive stem Formation of the weak basic stem Formation of the weak intransitive stem Note: verb roots can be divided into 2 groups: roots that can be either transitive or intransitive (like cét) and true intransitive verbs (like nèb). True intransitive roots use only the strong basic and weak intransitive stem forms. They can never be used in a transitive sense in the active voice. These roots are listed in bold '''in the vocabulary section, and may end in the ordinarily forbidden consonants b,f,v,d,s,z,c,j,sh,zh,g,gh. Step 2: Tense Step 3: Aspect Time related adverb prefixes Adverbs of frequency mo-always chyo-usually, typically nan-sometimes fu-rarely kwa-never Speed hexe-qickly glyoglyo-slowly Other kan- indicates an action that has been finished by a certain time (used less frequently than the english perfect) pa-indicates a unexpected, breif, and violent action, pazòdl is often taken to mean "explode" Subject Agreement The Behru verb agrees with its preformer, or subject, in person and number. A transitive verb also agrees with its object in person, subject, and number. . In the first person endings, the few and many endings carry different implications. mëmalalizh would mean "we are moving" (just us) but mëmalalye would mean "we are moving" (inculding the people being spoken to.) The fourth person endings are used to name a vague, distant, or unknown subject. These endings are used to indicate an action directed to the self, "cèleshu" would mean "I said to myself." Descriptive verbs Descriptive verbs are a special form of intransitive verb that are used to show ongoing states, like "the boiling rock" or permanent states, like "the rock is hard". Descriptive verbs function as adjectives. They agree with the noun being described in number, and use the intransitive stem. They are placed before the modified noun. When descriptive verb endings are not used, a participle is implied. Resultant state endings are used to indicate an action has already happened to the described object An illustration of the three ways to describe nouns with verbs lwóhmro kàrt: rock that is being heated up lwóhmlo kàrt: rock that is heating uo lwómlu kàrt: Hot rock lwómru kàrt: Rock that has become heated Voice Behru verbs have three voices, passive, causative, and permissive. The causative and passive voices may be fused to make the causative passive, and the permissive voice may fuse with the passive as well. Passive formation formation In order to form the weakened stem of a passive verb Causative formation Permissive voice The permissive indicates that an outside force allowed an action to happen. Said force is also in the "cause" case. It is indicated by internal reduplication The weak stems of the causative and permissive forms are formed the same as the passive. Combining Causative and Permissive with the passive To combine passive with the causative or permissive, one first changes the stem to causative or permissive, then palatalizes it. Example: Kàsa to kwàsa to kuyà'sa, brúvi to brúzhuvi to bry'ú'zhuvi. The core vowel is prolonged. Deriving verbs to nouns The most common way to change a verb into a noun is adding the suffix -ka to the end of a fully conjugated verb. Ka conjugates as a normal "a" noun, despite being only one syllable. Ka is used in a great variety of sentance constructions. For example, "rùnalu shùnza mási cèt ka céshro" "She doesn't like the act of speaking in front of other people" glossed "she dislikes speaking in front of other people." Another suffix, do, means "time". "vén wálina dohi múk hyèliphro" "at the time the woman slept the dog ate" glossed "the dog ate while the woman slept" A third suffix/ noun, "zo" means thing. An example of usage would be "céshro zo mecésu" "Things he likes I don't like." The fourth suffix, hen, means "er" in english. It is attached to the stem of the verb only. Remember sandhi when adding it cèt "speak" plus hen would be "cèsen" "speaker. mála "move" plus hen would be "málahen" "mover". The fifth suffix, hik, is used in the same way as hen. hik means "way of doing something". It is often used in questions that would be translated with how. "Béhru cèsik gáluk fi" "What is the way to speak Behru?" "How do you speak Behru." Behru sentence and phrase construction Modifiers Descriptive prefixes Descriptive verbs Adverbs Descriptive subordinate clauses Compound sentences Conjunctions tu: sentence a but sentence b fa: sentence a thus sentence b lya sentence a or sentence b Behru cesik uses only these three conjunctions independantly, most other sentence linking is done through clause subordination. Chaining nouns and verbs Behru nouns and verbs may be chained in a variety of ways with post position particles.The simplest way to chain nouns together is to add "ce" to the last word in the list. Only the final word is declined, with the preceding words left in the subject singular. An example:"yóng kl`msa ce dòn" "(that is) the man and woman's child." If one wishes to specify the number of all the nouns listed, ce is added to every noun in the list (this adds emphasis to the "together" aspect of the nouns). For example; "ñàwa ce múzh ce níklun" "That bird and those dogs are both short." For verbs, the particle "ce" is not required, instead, the first verb is left in stem form and the second verb is conjugated, for example: " Hyèp kàsahro" "He eats and drinks." Most compound verbs are formed in this way as well. To convey the sense of "or" when using a choice between two nouns, replace "ce" with "lya" (only use this construction for nouns) It works the same as "ce". Example: "Jë`mig byë´k lya hyîfika" "Are you eating meat or fruit?" Comparisons Numbers The base 12 system Dictionary Example text Sározòng màdzò lóhnro tu, cérazo gi. ''From order there is peace, but also stagnation. Category:Languages Category:Behru language family (b'iwro skiun tuatahikane)